Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to explore how musicians engaged with a particular form of technology, the synthesizer, to create imaginative geographies of the near future. It examines the output of numerous 'synth-pop' acts involved in the production of this commercially successful, urban-focussed music, focussing on the period between 1977 and 1984. Attention is given to how this music both embedded and self-consciously reflected notions of futurism, a theme that, until that time, had largely been neglected in popular music. The role of earlier futuristic visionaries, such as Fritz Lang, JG Ballard and Stanley Kubrick, in shaping musicians depictions of futurism is highlighted. Throughout, the music is interpreted by situating it within the specific cultural, economic and sociotechnical realms in which it was produced. Whilst the emphasis is on debates concerning futurism that were played out within a British musical context reference is also made to related significant developments that occurred outside the UK. This paper assesses the way that notions of futurism were enrolled into electronic music in certain times and places. Naturally, in many respects, all contemporary popular music is now 'electronic'; if not in its instrumentation then almost certainly in terms of its recording, distribution and consumption. However, my analysis of 'electronic music' refers to music in which electrically powered keyboard instruments, and specifically synthesizers, are to the fore of the mix, and where many of the sounds produced are clearly synthetically generated. In particular, the focus is on a form of electronic music, given the genre-label 'synth-pop' for marketing purposes, that was produced by artists sometimes referred to as 'futurists'. This music was characterized by simple, spartan arrangements and, unlike much of the 'progressive' synthesizer music that came before it, was largely devoid of rhetorical display. As the moniker 'futurist' implies, an overt engagement with ideas of futurism was a key characteristic that informed such music. The paper situates this embrace of futurism within an inter-textual terrain. Connections with parallel discourses in other art forms, notably film and literature, are highlighted, and special attention is given to the influence of earlier creative works on those musicians who explicitly sought to construct imaginary sonic geographies of the future. An attempt is made to outline ways in which the musicians responsible for such 'new' sounds positioned this output within a broader discourse on modernity and the near future, one which, in the UK in particular, was often linked in to representations of the built environment. The focus for this paper is the period between 1977 and 1984. Several factors determine this start date. Firstly, by 1977 the initial fervour of the guitar driven punk movement was cooling. However, some key lasting consequences of punk were becoming increasingly discernible. One of these concerned the growing enthusiasm for the catalytic role that punk played in inspiring an increasing number of young people to adopt a DIY (do it yourself), non-virtuoso ethos to music making. By the late 1970s this notion had been extended beyond 1 Quote taken from an interview recorded as part of The BBC 6 Music documentary 'The Great Bleep Forward: episode 2'. guitar-based sounds and applied to musical expression centred on the synthesizer, an instrument that had, for the first time, begun to be sold at affordable prices. Andy Fletcher, a founding member of the synth-pop group, Depeche Mode, recalled that when models such as the MiniKorg 700s became available, "you could buy a monophonic synthesizer for about £150 quid. I think that was the main reason for the explosion in electronic music at that time. It was basically about affordability." 1 The second reason for choosing the start date of 1977 is that another consequence of the punk movement was that it helped create a basic institutional framework to facilitate the production, distribution and selling of types of records which previously had been poorly or non-served by established music industry networks. This benefitted new, and initially experimental, forms of music, such as synth-pop. Thirdly, the end of the 1970s marked a time when conditions were benign for musicians who needed free or low rent spaces in which to rehearse and play live. The industrial decline that the UK had experienced for much of the preceding decade had resulted in a surfeit of vacant and derelict properties that young musicians took advantage of, which assisted in the creation of vibrant local music scenes across the country. Finally, the late 1970s was a period in which science fiction portrayals of the future moved into the mainstream of popular culture. One interpretation that has been put forward to attempt to explain this is that people embraced imaginary worlds such as science fiction as a partial reaction to the harshness of the real environment in which they lived. Similar reasons were given, shortly afterwards, for the embrace of the period exotica of pirate, clown, or Culloden warrior 2 associated with the New Romantic fashion movement. As music writer Jon Savage noted, "the truism about the 1970s was its grimness. Yet for many it marked an explosion of fantasy." 3 Fantasy worlds were depicted in George Lucas' film Star Wars, released into cinemas in 1977, and in Space Invaders -the first game that tracked and displayed high scores -which was originally manufactured and sold in Japan by Taito, and then licensed for production in the US by Midway. 4 e enthusiastic response that greeted their arrival was symptomatic of the fact that the idea of 'the Future' began to exert a hold on the popular imagination in the late 1970s, which continued until the middle of the next decade. One possible reason for this relates to profound uncertainty about the prospects for the future. Economically, some areas in the UK appeared to be becoming lost causes, a mood later captured in Aztec Camera's 'Killermont Street' (1987). This song was named after the road that houses Glasgow's coach station and detailed the exodus of workers to London and the South. The Specials captured the potential consequences of such an exodus on a city on their No. 1 single, 'Ghost Town'. The song was interpreted as being about their home town of Coventry but went on to become an anthem for all post-industrial cities, its bleak message appearing to echo Johnny Rotten's feral refrain of "No Future" in The Sex Pistols' song 'God Save The Queen'. Such an outlook also resonated with another conversation that was repeatedly played out in the popular media of the early 1980s. This concerned the possibility of Armageddon being brought about by the then seemingly real threat of a nuclear holocaust. On television this was enacted in drama, as in the BBC's 'Threads ' (1984), set in post-bomb Sheffield, government information messages, documentaries, and even demonstrated by comedy, as in 'Bomb' (1982), the fourth episode of the sitcom series, The Young Ones. The topic was also repeatedly addressed in popular music. Examples here included OMD's 'Enola Gay' (1980), named after the plane which dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan's 'Burning Bridges' (1980), which addressed the same incident, U2's 'Seconds ' (1983), about the home assembly of an atomic bomb in a New York apartment, and Frankie Goes to Hollywood's 'Two Tribes' (1984), a satirical response to the USA-USSR arms race, and the only song beginning with the sound of an atomic air raid warning to have topped the UK singles chart. The choice of an end date of 1984 for the topic examined in this paper has, again, been selected for numerous reasons. Firstly, by this time, the previously revolutionary technology of sampling was becoming widespread. This approach helped to forge novel ways of making music by blending together previously unimaginable sonic inputs. To some the opportunities that the new sampling technology offered appeared limitless, a view held by Hank Shocklee, co-producer of New York hip-hop group Public Enemy: the exodus of workers to London and the South. The Specials captured the potential consequences of such an exodus on a city on their No. 1 single, ‘Ghost Town’. The song was interpreted as being about their home town of Coventry but went on to become an anthem for all post-industrial cities, its bleak message appearing to echo Johnny Rotten’s feral refrain of “No Future” in The Sex Pistols’ song ‘God Save The Queen’. Such an outlook also resonated with another conversation that was repeatedly played out in the popular media of the early 1980s. This concerned the possibility of Armageddon being brought about by the then seemingly real threat of a nuclear holocaust. On television this was enacted in drama, as in the BBC’s ‘Threads’ (1984), set in post-bomb Sheffield, government information messages, documentaries, and even demonstrated by comedy, as in ‘Bomb’ (1982), the fourth episode of the sitcom series, The Young Ones. The topic was also repeatedly addressed in popular music. Examples here included OMD’s ‘Enola Gay’ (1980), named after the plane which dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan’s ‘Burning Bridges’ (1980), which addressed the same incident, U2’s ‘Seconds’ (1983), about the home assembly of an atomic bomb in a New York apartment, and Frankie Goes to Hollywood’s ‘Two Tribes’ (1984), a satirical response to the USA-USSR arms race, and the only song beginning with the sound of an atomic air raid warning to have topped the UK singles chart. The choice of an end date of 1984 for the topic examined in this paper has, again, been selected for numerous reasons. Firstly, by this time, the previously revolutionary technology of sampling was becoming widespread. This approach helped to forge novel ways of making music by blending together previously unimaginable sonic inputs. To some the opportunities that the new sampling technology offered appeared limitless, a view held by Hank Shocklee, co-producer of New York hip-hop group Public Enemy: We took whatever... threw it into a pot, and that's how we came out with this group ... We believed that music is nothing but organized noise. You can take anything -street sounds, us talking, whatever you want -and make it music by organizing it. 5 However, in addition to stimulating such experimentation, sampling also encouraged an element of curatorship to be embedded into the fabric of popular music. Rather than being shunned, as had often previously been the case, sounds from pop's own past increasingly came to be excavated, re-visited and re-mixed. Partly as a reaction to fears over 'fakery' associated with synthesizers and sampling, a musical ideology which presented itself as being concerned with issues of supposed authenticity gathered momentum. This essentially conservative movement received a significant boost with the success of the Live Aid concerts held in London and Philadelphia in 1985. These vast shows were orchestrated around traditional modes of live performance and the big screens and zoom lenses of the multicamera production eulogised bodily toil, visible displays of endeavour and sweat, rather than the static detachment associated with many synth-pop acts. Perhaps the most celebrated performance at Live Aid was that provided by Queen. Earlier in their career, the band had enthusiastically promoted spurious notions of authenticity and supposed musical virtuosity by placing stickers on their albums that proclaimed "no synthesizers!" The fact that in the early 1980s Queen themselves also briefly adopted synthesizers reflected the instrument's increasing ubiquity, foot_1 which prompted a discernible reaction against it. Acts such as The Eurythmics and Depeche Mode, who had started out as purely electronic acts, began to release records that were increasingly guitar orientated. Even The Human League, once at the vanguard of popularizing machine music -a group whose first name was The Future and who began their career creating synthesizer enabled works such as 'The Dignity of Labour' ep, a "four-part story of Yuri Gagarin's first space flight set to krautrock" (Rogers, 2011: 2)chose to emulate Queen's example by attaching stickers to their albums that stated "no sequencers!" And, finally, and perhaps most terminally, by the middle of the 1980s, the theme of futurism in music sounded increasingly hackneyed and was becoming, at times, a parody of itself, a situation later lampooned by the comedy duo, Flight of the Conchords, in their song, 'Robots': 5 David Toop, Ocean of Sound: Aether Talk, Ambient Sound and Imaginary Worlds (London: Serpent’s Tail, 1995), p. 123. The distant future, The year 2000, We no longer say "Yes," instead, we say "Affirmative." Unless we know the other robot really well. The humans are dead. Binary solo! 000000111 Once again, without emotion, the humans are dead. 7 the static detachment associated with many synth-pop acts. Perhaps the most celebrated performance at Live Aid was that provided by Queen. Earlier in their career, the band had enthusiastically promoted spurious notions of authenticity and supposed musical virtuosity by placing stickers on their albums that proclaimed “no synthesizers!” The fact that in the early 1980s Queen themselves also briefly adopted synthesizers reflected the instrument’s increasing ubiquity, 6 which prompted a discernible reaction against it. Acts such as The Eurythmics and Depeche Mode, who had started out as purely electronic acts, began to release records that were increasingly guitar orientated. Even The Human League, once at the vanguard of popularizing machine music – a group whose first name was The Future and who began their career creating synthesizer enabled works such as ‘The Dignity of Labour’ ep, a “four-part story of Yuri Gagarin’s first space flight set to krautrock” (Rogers, 2011: 2) – chose to emulate Queen’s example by attaching stickers to their albums that stated “no sequencers!” And, finally, and perhaps most terminally, by the middle of the 1980s, the theme of futurism in music sounded increasingly hackneyed and was becoming, at times, a parody of itself, a situation later lampooned by the comedy duo, Flight of the Conchords, in their song, ‘Robots’: The distant future, The year 2000, We no longer say “Yes,” instead, we say “Affirmative.” Unless we know the other robot really well. The humans are dead. Binary solo! 000000111 Once again, without emotion, the humans are dead. 7 Synthesizers and Musical Articulations of Place In the late 1970s, the newly formed Sheffield based trio, Cabaret Voltaire, became interested in the possibilities electronics offered with regard to musically depicting their home city. The harsh, apparently alienating sounds the group produced were interpreted and promoted, along with the early output of The Human League, as being emblematic of the apparently bleak, forbidding post-industrial landscape often associated with the South Yorkshire city in the late 1970s. Elsewhere, the formative work of many other bands whose music was also largely distinguished by synthesizer enabled sounds, such as Liverpool’s Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark, Glasgow’s Simple Minds, Manchester’s Joy Division and London based acts, including The Normal, Gary Numan, and John Foxx, all frequently referenced the supposedly disruptive impact of their external surroundings. This music engaged with landscapes of modernity and human relationships experienced within them.
Showing the abstract — retrieve the full paper via the Exa API.